Getting started with Makefiles: Advanced features

1. What are macros and why should I use them?

Think of programs that shall be used at different locations: CERN, DESY, SLAC, University of Bonn, … The C/C++ programs are highly portable (at least after some effort) but the names of the programs used to compile them – as well as their arguments – may be very different. So it would be nice to once give the program name, the list of arguments, etc. and then only use symbolic names so that you can rapidly adjust to the local computing environment. Those symbolic names are called “macros”. Let’s recall Makefile5.

All object files are made using g++. On other machines that may be cxx, cpp, or something the like. So let’s define a macro for the C++ compiler:

The command line options are also different for different compilers so it’s a good idea to have a macro for them:

On some machines the command to remove files is rm (or rm -f), on others del, some use delete, some erase, and some even discard.So that’s another candidate for a macro:

Even make may not always be called make (though I know of no system where this is the case):

In our example the linker is also g++. In general that need not be the case. So we define the following two macros:

The meaning of the following two macros is obvious:

After these changes the present state of the Makefile is Makefile6:

2. What are inference rules and what are they good for?

If you have a close look at the rules to make mirror.o, input.o, output.o, and process.o you see that they are all the same:

To avoid all these lenthy entries in a Makefile there are inference rules: They describe the ’standard procedure’ of making files of type b from files of type a. In this case the rule to make an object file from a given C++ file is

or alternatively you could use

It’s easy to see what $< and $* mean but I’ll come back to that in just a moment. First I will change the rule for making the target ‘mirror’ so that it makes use of another strange-looking predefined macros:

Now let’s have a look at the meaning of $*, $<, and $@:

$* ist the current target without an extension (the base file name) with path. For example, in

the value of $* is input. $* is commonly used only in inference rules and command lines.

$@ is the current target (including extension, if any). For example, in

the value of $@ is mirror.

$< is a dependent file out-of date with the target file. For example,

Notice that $<, in an inference rule such as .cc.o, is equivalent to $*.cc (as already mentioned).

Just to remind you: Your Makefile should now look like Makefile7:

3. Continuation lines

If your project consists of a great number of files (or you need lots of options) you may wish to split lines. Another reason for splitting lines is increasing the readability of your Makefile (don’t underestimate that point!).  In Makefile7 you could change the line reading

to read

4.  Comments

You can also add comments to your Makefile like the ones in Makefile8:

5. The .SUFFIXES pseudo target

make comes with a couple of predefined rules how to make certain files. To get rid of them simply use

If you do that you have to list all suffixes that your Makefile does support. In the above case that would be

You can also use .SUFFIXES to add rules to the predefined ones (in precisely the same manner as in the example above).

6. Using environment variables

You can use environment variables in the same way as macros (besides that they are defined outside the Makefile):

Surely this is not a very useful example. Finding more useful ones is left to the reader.  Now, your Makefile should look like Makefile9:

What is the location of the directory of C header files that match
 your running kernel?

ในคำสั่งด้านบน ถ้าใส่ directory ผิดจะมีการขึ้นข้อความในลักษณะดังต่อไปนี้

The header files in /usr/include are generally for C libraries, not for the
running kernel. If you do not have kernel header files in your /usr/src
directory, you probably do not have the kernel-source package installed. Are
you sure that /usr/include contains the header files associated with your
running kernel?

ในกรณีที่ยังไม่มี C header file ดังกล่าว ให้ลง build-essential ของ Ubuntu ดังต่อไปนี้

apt-get install linux-headers-`uname -r` build-essential

/lib/modules/2.6.27-7-server/build/include